Running is a common form of activity worldwide, and participants range from"weekend warriors"to Olympians. Unfortunately, few studies have examined efficacy of various ergogenic aids in runners because the majority of the literature consists of cycling-based protocols, which do not relate to running performance. The majority of running studies conducted markedly vary in regards to specific distance completed, subject fitness level, and effectiveness of the ergogenic aid examined. The aim of this article was to systematically examine the literature concerning utility of several ergogenic aids on middle-distance running (400-5,000 m) and long-distance running (10,000 meters marathon = 42.2 km) performance. In addition, this article highlights the dearth of running-specific studies in the literature and addresses recommendations for future research to optimize running performance through nutritional intervention. Results revealed 23 studies examining effects of various ergogenic aids on running performance, with a mean Physiotherapy Evidence Database score equal to 7.85± 0.70. Of these studies, 71% (n = 15) demonstrated improved running performance with ergogenic aid ingestion when compared with a placebo trial. The most effective ergogenic aids for distances from 400 m to 40 km included sodium bicarbonate (4 studies; 1.5 ± 1.1% improvement), sodium citrate (6 studies; 0.3 ± 1.7% improvement), caffeine (CAFF) (7 studies; 1.1 ± 0.4% improvement), and carbohydrate (CHO) (6 studies; 4.1 ± 4.4% improvement). Therefore, runners may benefit from ingestion of sodium bicarbonate to enhance middle distance performance and caffeine and carbohydrate to enhance performance at multiple distances.

Background:The purpose of this study was to observe the effect of(bellows breath) and exercise on lung function of healthy individuals.

Materials and Methods:A total of thirty male participants were recruited and randomly divided into two groups, i.e., yoga breathing group (YBG,= 15) and physical exercise group (PEG,= 15), and the participants' ages ranged between 18 and 30 years (group age mean± standard deviation, 22.5 ± 1.9 years). YBG practicedfor 15 min, whereas PEG practiced running for 15 min, 6 days in a week, over a period of 1 month. The participants were assessed for (i) forced vital capacity (FVC), (ii) forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1), (iii) peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), and (iv) maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) functions of lungs.

Results:Repeated-measures analyses of variance with Bonferroni adjustmentanalyses of multiple comparisons showed that there was a significant increase in YBG for all variables, i.e., FVC, FEV1, PEFR, and MVV (<0.001,<0.001,<0.01, and<0.001, respectively), whereas there was a significant increase in PEFR and MVV (<0.05 and<0.01, respectively) only, among PEG. However, the change in PEG was less of magnitude as compared to YBG.

Conclusions:These findings demonstrate that incorporatingin sports can enhance the efficiency of healthy individuals and athletes by enhancing the ventilatory functions of lungs, especially for those who partake in aerobic-based sports and require efficient lungs to deliver sufficient oxygen uptake.

Exercise training is known to exert multiple beneficial effects including renal protection in type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. However, the mechanisms regulating these actions remain unclear. The present study evaluated the effects of chronic running exercise on the early stage of diabetic nephropathy, focusing on nitric oxide synthase (NOS), oxidative stress and glycation in the kidneys of Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats. Male ZDF rats (6 weeks old) underwent forced treadmill exercise for 8 weeks (Ex-ZDF). Sedentary ZDF (Sed-ZDF) and Zucker lean (Sed-ZL) rats served as controls. Exercise attenuated hyperglycemia (plasma glucose; 242± 43 mg/dL in Sed-ZDF and 115 ± 5 mg/dL in Ex-ZDF) with increased insulin secretion (plasma insulin; 2.3 ± 0.7 and 5.3 ± 0.9 ng/mL), reduced albumin excretion (urine albumin; 492 ± 70 and 176 ± 11 mg/g creatinine) and normalized creatinine clearance (9.7 ± 1.4 and 4.5 ± 0.8 mL/min per body weight) in ZDF rats. Endothelial (e) and neuronal (n) NOS expression in kidneys of Sed-ZDF rats were lower compared with Sed-ZL rats (p<0.01), while both eNOS and nNOS expression were upregulated by exercise (p<0.01). Furthermore, exercise decreased NADPH oxidase activity, p47phox expression (p<0.01) andα-oxoaldehydes (the precursors for advanced glycation end products) (p<0.01) in the kidneys of ZDF rats. Additionally, morphometric evidence indicated renal damage was reduced in response to exercise. These data suggest that upregulation of NOS expression, suppression of NADPH oxidase andα-oxoaldehydes in the kidneys may, at least in part, contribute to the renal protective effects of exercise in the early progression of diabetic nephropathy in ZDF rats. Moreover, this study supports the theory that chronic aerobic exercise could be recommended as an effective non-pharmacological therapy for renoprotection in the early stages of type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity.

The aim of this study was to compare the spatio-temporal parameters of trained runners and untrained participants with the same foot strike pattern (rearfoot) during running at controlled speeds. Twenty-one participants were classified in two groups according to their training experience: Trained (n=10, amateur runners with long distance training experience) and Untrained (n=11, healthy non-trained participants). Anthropometric variables were recorded, and the participants performed both a submaximal (between 9 and 15 km·h) and a graded exercise running test (from 6 km·h until exhaustion) on a treadmill. Physiological (VO2max, heart rate, running economy, peak speed…) and biomechanical variables (contact and flight times, step rate and length) were simultaneously registered. Trained runners showed higher step rate and shorter step length than the Untrained group at the same running speeds (between 4-7%, p<0.05) and at the same physiological intensities (between 7-11%, p<0.05). However, there were no differences in contact and flight times between groups. Significant differences (p<0.05) and large effect sizes (Cohen's d) between groups were found for body mass, sum of 6 skinfolds, VO2max, peak speed, ventilatory threshold and respiratory compensation threshold speeds. The Trained group also showed a∼7% better running economy (ml·kg·km) than the Untrained group. In conclusion, adopting higher step rate and shorter step length may be an adaptive mechanism of the Trained group to reduce injury risk and possibly improve running economy. However, contact and flight times were consistent regardless of training level.

Lovell, DI, Mason, DG, Delphinus, EM, and McLellan, CP. Do compression garments enhance the active recovery process after high-intensity running? J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3264-3268, 2011-This study examined the effect of wearing waist-to-ankle compression garments (CGs) on active recovery after moderate- and high-intensity submaximal treadmill running. Twenty-five male semiprofessional rugby league players performed two 30-minute treadmill runs comprising of six 5-minute stages at 6 km·h, 10 km·h, approximately 85% VO(2)max, 6 km·h as a recovery stage followed by approximately 85% VO(2)max and 6 km·h wearing either CGs or regular running shorts in a randomized counterbalanced order with each person acting as his own control. All stages were followed by 30 seconds of rest during which a blood sample was collected to determine blood pH and blood lactate concentration [La]. Expired gases and heart rate (HR) were measured during the submaximal treadmill tests to determine metabolic variables with the average of the last 2 minutes used for data analysis. The HR and [La] werelower (p ≤ 0.05) after the first and second 6 km·h recovery bouts when wearing CGs compared with when wearing running shorts. The respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was higher and [La] lower (p ≤ 0.05) after the 10 km·h stage, and only RER was higher after both 85% VO(2)max stages when wearingCGs compared with when wearing running shorts. There was no difference in blood pH at any exercise stage when wearing the CGs and running shorts. The results of this study indicate that the wearing of CGs may augment the active recovery process in reducing [La] and HR after high-intensity exercise but not effect blood pH. The ability to reduce [La] and HR has important consequences for many sports that are intermittent in nature and consist of repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise interspersed with periods of low-intensity exercise or recovery.

BACKGROUND:Heavy exercise cause muscle damage associated with production of inflammatory agents. The purpose of present study was to determine the effect of acute and 14-day Coenzyme Q10 supplementation on inflammatory, blood lactate and muscle damage in male middle-distance runners.

METHODS:Eighteen male middle-distance runners in a randomized and quasi experimental study were allocated into two equal groups: supplement group (n=9, Coenzyme Q10: 5mg/kg/day) and placebo group (n= 9, Dextrose: 5mg/kg/day). After acute (1day) and 14-day supplementation, all subjects were participated in a training like running (competitive 3000 meters). Blood samples were obtained in the four phases: one hour before and 18-24 hours after two running protocols. Lactate, serum interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), C-reactive protein (CRP) and creatine kinase (CK) were analyzed. Repeated ANOVA and Bonferuni as a post hoc tests were used to determine the changes in four stages. Differences between groups were determined by t-test.

RESULTS:The results showed that acute and short-term Coenzyme Q10 supplementation had not significant effect on basal parameters. The acute coenzyme Q10 supplementation attenuated only the exercise-induced increase in response of the plasma CRP. The short-term (14-day) coenzyme Q10 supplementation attenuated the exercise-induced increase in response of the lactate, serum interleukin- 6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and CRP in male middle-distance runners. However, the acute and short-term coenzyme Q10 supplementation had not any significant effect on the exerciseinduced increase response of total serum creatine kinase.

CONCLUSION:Based on the present results, it can be concluded that the 14-day coenzyme Q10 supplementation (5mg.kg-1.day-1) is more effective than the acute supplementation to overcome the exercise-induced adverse responses in some oxidative, inflammatory and biochemical parameters. Therefore, short-term coenzyme Q10 supplementation is recommended to reduce exercise-induced adverse consequences.

The aim of this study was to investigate whether wearing compression garments during recovery improved subsequent repeated sprint and 3-km run performance. In a randomized single-blind crossover study, 22 well-trained male rugby union players (mean± SD: age 20.1 ± 2.1 years, body mass 88.4 ± 8.8 kg) were given a full-leg length compressive garment (76% Meryl Elastane, 24% Lycra) or a similar-looking noncompressive placebo garment (92% Polyamide, 8% Lycra) to wear continuously for 24 hours after performing a series of circuits developed tosimulate a rugby game. After the 24-hour recovery, garments were removed and a 40-m repeated sprint test (10 sprints at 30-second intervals), followed 10 minutes later by a 3-km run, was completed. One week later, the groups were reversed and testing repeated. Relative to the placebo, wearing the compressive garment decreased time to complete the 3 km by 2.0% ± 1.9% (mean ± 90% confidence interval). Additionally, average sprint times improved (1.2% ± 1.5%) and fatigue was diminished (-15.8% ± 26.1%) during the repeated sprint test in the compression group compared with the placebo group. Delayed onset muscle soreness was substantially lower in the compression group compared with the placebo group, 48 hours after testing. Wearing compressive garments during recovery is likely to be worthwhile, and very unlikely to be harmful for well-trained rugby union players.

Intense exercise is directly related to muscular damage and oxidative stress due to excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) in both, plasma and white blood cells. Nevertheless, exercise-derived ROS are essential to regulate cellular adaptation to exercise. Studies on antioxidant supplements have provided controversial results. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of moderate antioxidant supplementation (lemon verbena extract) in healthy male volunteers that followed a 90-min running eccentric exercise protocol for 21 days. Antioxidant enzymes activities and oxidative stress markers were measured in neutrophils. Besides, inflammatory cytokines and muscular damage were determined in whole blood and serum samples, respectively. Intense running exercise for 21 days induced antioxidant response in neutrophils of trained male through the increase of the antioxidant enzymes catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase. Supplementation with moderate levels of an antioxidant lemon verbena extract did not block this cellular adaptive response and also reduced exercise-induced oxidative damage of proteins and lipids in neutrophils and decreased myeloperoxidase activity. Moreover, lemon verbena supplementation maintained or decreased the level of serum transaminases activity indicating a protection of muscular tissue. Exercise induced a decrease of interleukin-6 and interleukin-1β levels after 21 days measured in basal conditions, which was not inhibited by antioxidant supplementation. Therefore, moderate antioxidant supplementation with lemon verbena extract protects neutrophils against oxidative damage, decreases the signs of muscular damage in chronic running exercise without blocking the cellular adaptation to exercise.

This study investigated the effects of wearing a variety of lower-limb compression garments on 400-m sprint performance. Eleven 400-m male runners (23.7± 5.7 years, 1.78 ± 0.08 m, and 75.3 ± 10.0 kg) completed six, 400-m running tests on an outdoor, all-weather running track on separate occasions. The participants completed 2 runs with long-length lower-limb compression garments (LG; hip-to-ankle), a combination of short-length lower-limb compression garments (SG; hip-to-knee) with calf compression sleeves (ankle-to-knee), or without compression garments (CON; shorts), in a randomized, counterbalanced order. Overall lap time and 100-m split times, heart rate, and ratings of perceived exertion (RPEs) were measured during the 400-m run. Blood lactate concentration, visual analogue scales for perceived soreness, feeling and arousal, and scales for perceived comfort and tightness when wearing compression garments, were assessed before (preexercise, post-warm-up) and after 400-m performance (post, 4 minutes postexercise, after a warm-down). Statistical analysis revealed no differences between conditions in overall 400-m performance, 100-m split times, or blood lactate concentration (p>0.05), although there was a trend for an increased rate of blood lactate clearance when wearing compression garments. A significantly lower RPE (p>0.05) was however observed during LG (13.8± 0.9) and SG (13.4 ± 1.1) when compared with CON (14.0 ± 1.0). This study has demonstrated that lower-limb compression garments may lower the effort perception associated with 400-m performance, despite there being no differences in overall athletic performance.

The skeletal muscles of animals and humans with type 2 diabetes have decreased oxidative capacity. Aerobic exercise can improve muscle oxidative capacity, but no data are available on the amount of exercise required. We investigated the effects of voluntary running exercise and running distance on the skeletal muscle properties of nonobese rats with type 2 diabetes. Six-week-old male diabetic Goto-Kakizaki rats were divided into nonexercised (GK) and exercised (GK-Ex) groups. The rats in the GK-Ex group were permitted voluntary running exercise on wheels for 6 weeks. Age-matched male Wistar rats (WR) were used as nondiabetic controls. Fasting blood glucose and HbA1c levels were higher in the GK and GK-Ex groups than in the WR group and lower in the GK-Ex group than in the GK group. Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1alpha (Pgc-1alpha) mRNA levels in the soleus and plantaris muscles were higher in the WR and GK-Ex groups than in the GK group. HbA1c and total cholesterol levels were negatively correlated with running distance and SDH activity and Pgc-1alpha mRNA levels in the soleus muscle were positively correlated with running distance. The onset and progression of diabetes in nonobese diabetic rats were effectively inhibited by running longer distances.

Blueberries are abundant with anthocyanins possessing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. As these properties combat fatigue and promote recovery, blueberry supplementation may enhance performance and recovery. Thus, the objectives were to examine the effects of two blueberry supplementation protocols on running performance, physiological responses, and short-term recovery. Using a randomized, double-blind, placebo (PLA)-controlled crossover design, 14 runners completed an 8-km time trial (TT) after supplementation with 4 days of blueberries (4DAY), 4 days of a PLA, or 2 days of placebo followed by 2 days of blueberries (2DAY). Heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion were monitored during the TT. Blood lactate, vertical jump, reactive strength index, and salivary markers were assessed before and after. No significant differences were observed for time to complete the TT (PLA: 3,010± 459 s; 2DAY: 3,014 ± 488 s; 4DAY: 3,011 ± 423 s), heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, or any of the salivary markers. An interaction effect (p = .027) was observed for blood lactate, with lower post-TT concentrations in 4DAY (5.4 ± 2.0 mmol/L) than PLA (6.6 ± 2.5 mmol/L; p = .038)and 2DAY (7.4 ± 3.4 mmol/L; p = .034). Post-TT decreases in vertical jump height were not different, whereas the decline in reactive strength index was less following 4DAY (-6.1% ± 13.5%) than the other conditions (PLA: -12.6% ± 10.1%; 2DAY: -11.6% ± 11.5%; p = .038). Two days of supplementation did not influence performance or physiological stress. Although 4 days of supplementation did not alter performance, it blunted the increase in blood lactate, perhaps reflecting altered lactate production and/or clearance, and offset the decrease in dynamic muscle function post-TT, as indicated by the reactive strength index differences.

BACKGROUND:Runners at various levels of performance and specializing in different events (from 800 m to marathons) wear compression socks, sleeves, shorts, and/or tights in attempt to improve their performance and facilitate recovery. Recently, a number of publications reporting contradictory results with regard to the influence of compression garments in this context have appeared.

OBJECTIVES:To assess original research on the effects of compression clothing (socks, calf sleeves, shorts, and tights) on running performance and recovery.

METHOD:A computerized research of the electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science was performed in September of 2015, and the relevant articles published in peer-reviewed journals were thus identified rated using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) Scale. Studies examining effects on physiological, psychological, and/or biomechanical parameters during or after running were included, and means and measures of variability for the outcome employed to calculate Hedges'g effect size and associated 95 % confidence intervals for comparison of experimental (compression) and control (non-compression) trials.

RESULTS:Compression garments exerted no statistically significant mean effects on running performance (times for a (half) marathon, 15-km trail running, 5- and 10-km runs, and 400-m sprint), maximal and submaximal oxygen uptake, blood lactate concentrations, blood gas kinetics, cardiac parameters (including heart rate, cardiac output, cardiac index, and stroke volume), body and perceived temperature, or the performance of strength-related tasks after running. Small positive effect sizes were calculated for the time to exhaustion (in incremental or step tests), running economy (including biomechanical variables), clearance of blood lactate, perceived exertion, maximal voluntary isometric contraction and peak leg muscle power immediately after running, and markers of muscle damage and inflammation. The body core temperature was moderately affected by compression, while the effect size values for post-exercise leg soreness and the delay in onset of muscle fatigue indicated large positive effects.

CONCLUSION:Our present findings suggest that by wearing compression clothing, runners may improve variables related to endurance performance (i.e., time to exhaustion) slightly, due to improvements in running economy, biomechanical variables, perception, and muscle temperature. They should also benefit from reduced muscle pain, damage, and inflammation.

BACKGROUND:In order to implement running to promote physical activity, it is essential to quantify the extent to which running improves health.

OBJECTIVE:The aim was to summarise the literature on the effects of endurance running on biomedical indices of health in physically inactive adults.

DATA SOURCES:Electronic searches were conducted in October 2014 on PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, PEDro, the Cochrane Library and LILACS, with no limits of date and language of publication.

STUDY SELECTION:Randomised controlled trials (with a minimum of 8 weeks of running training) that included physically inactive but healthy adults (18-65 years) were selected. The studies needed to compare intervention (i.e. endurance running) and control (i.e., no intervention) groups.

STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS:Two authors evaluated study eligibility, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias; a third author resolved any uncertainties. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed to summarise the estimates for length of training and sex. A dose-response analysis was performed with random-effects meta-regression in order to investigate the relationship between running characteristics and effect sizes.

RESULTS:After screening 22,380 records, 49 articles were included, of which 35 were used to combine data on ten biomedical indices of health. On average the running programs were composed of 3.7± 0.9 sessions/week, 2.3 ± 1.0 h/week, 14.4 ± 5.4 km/week, at 60-90% of the maximum heart rate, and lasted 21.5 ± 16.8 weeks. After 1 year of training, running was effective in reducing body mass by 3.3 kg [95% confidence interval (CI) 4.1-2.5], body fat by 2.7% (95% CI 5.1-0.2), resting heart rate by 6.7 min(-1) (95% CI 10.3-3.0) and triglycerides by 16.9 mg dl(-1) (95% CI 28.1-5.6). Also, running significantly increased maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) by 7.1 ml min(-1) kg(-1) (95% CI 5.0-9.1) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol by 3.3 mg dl(-1) (95% CI 1.2-5.4). No significanteffect was found for lean body mass, body mass index, total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol after 1 year of training. In the dose-response analysis, larger effect sizes were found for longer length of training.

LIMITATIONS:It was only possible to combine the data of ten out the 161 outcome measures identified. Lack of information on training characteristics precluded a multivariate model in the dose-response analysis.

CONCLUSIONS:Endurance running was effective in providing substantial beneficial effects on body mass, body fat, resting heart rate, VO2max, triglycerides and HDL cholesterol in physically inactive adults. The longer the length of training, the larger the achieved health benefits. Clinicians and health authorities can use this information to advise individuals to run, and to support policies towards investing in running programs.

BACKGROUND:This study evaluates the effects of training (on running distance measured with a Cooper test) in 3 weeks in non-professional athletes using PycnoRacer®, a fitness drink (FD) including Pycnogenol® during the training period.

METHODS:Pycnogenol® has been used in preclinical conditions and prevention. PycnoRacer® is a liquid combination of Pycnogenol® (15 mg), L-leucine (0.6 g), L-arginine (0.3 g), L-isoleucine (0.3 g), and L-valine (0.3 g). Two comparable groups (one using the FD) were formed: 60 training athletes were requested to drink one bottle 4 times/day, while 65 controls did not use PycnoRacer® or other comparable sports drinks. All subjects had a strong athletic background and advanced knowledge of the procedures of the tests. Two daily training sessions were completed. The sessions consisted in warming up and running aCooper test.

RESULTS:125 subjects completed the three weeks according to plans. There were nine dropouts due to logistical or working problems. Subjects using the FD improved on average by 18.83% (range 12-23%) in their running distance with training. The difference with controls was significant (P<0.05) at 3 weeks (controls improved on average by 8.9%; range 3-17.4%). The difference between the two groups was on average 9.93% (P<0.05). A comparable increase in VO2max was observed in the groups. In the FD group the increase was on average by 10.05 mL/kg/min compared to 4.95 mL/kg/min in controls, with a difference of 5.1 mL/kg/min (P<0.05). A VAS score showed comparable values. Lower values (concerning muscular pain and cramps) were observed in FD subjects (P<0.05) at the end of the 3 weeks of training. The level of plasma free radicals (PFR) values after the last Cooper test was significantly lower at 3 weeks in the FD group (P<0.05). No intolerance problem was observed by subjects using the FD.

CONCLUSIONS:In conclusion, the use of PycnoRacer® improved training, running distance, VO2max and PFR decreasing muscular pain and cramps.

PURPOSE:This study aimed to analyze the influence of foot strike pattern on running economy and biomechanical characteristics in subelite runners with a similar performance level.

METHODS:Twenty subelite long-distance runners participated and were divided into two groups according to their foot strike pattern: rearfoot (RF, n = 10) and midfoot (MF, n = 10) strikers. Anthropometric characteristics were measured (height, body mass, body mass index, skinfolds, circumferences, and lengths); physiological (VO2max, anaerobic threshold, and running economy) and biomechanical characteristics (contact and flight times, step rate, and step length) were registered during both incremental and submaximal tests on a treadmill.

RESULTS:There were no significant intergroup differences in anthropometrics, VO2max, or anaerobic threshold measures. RF strikers were 5.4%, 9.3%, and 5.0% more economical than MF at submaximal speeds (11, 13, and 15 km·h respectively, although the difference was not significant at 15 km·h, P = 0.07). Step rate and step length were not different between groups, but RF showed longer contact time (P<0.01) and shorter flight time (P<0.01) than MF at all running speeds.

CONCLUSIONS:The present study showed that habitually rearfoot striking runners are more economical than midfoot strikers. Foot strike pattern affected both contact and flight times, which may explain the differences in running economy.

BACKGROUND:Exercise has been shown to improve many health outcomes and well-being of people of all ages. Long-term studies in older adults are needed to confirm disability and survival benefits of exercise.

METHODS:Annual self-administered questionnaires were sent to 538 members of a nationwide running club and 423 healthy controls from northern California who were 50 years and older beginning in 1984. Data included running and exercise frequency, body mass index, and disability assessed by the Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index (HAQ-DI; scored from 0 [no difficulty] to 3 [unable to perform]) through 2005. A total of 284 runners and 156 controls completed the 21-year follow-up. Causes of death through 2003 were ascertained using the National Death Index. Multivariate regression techniques compared groups on disability and mortality.

RESULTS:At baseline, runners were younger, leaner, and less likely to smoke compared with controls. The mean (SD) HAQ-DI score was higher for controls than for runners at all time points and increased with age in both groups, but to a lesser degree in runners (0.17 [0.34]) than in controls (0.36 [0.55]) (P<.001). Multivariate analyses showed that runners had a significantly lower risk of an HAQ-DI score of 0.5 (hazard ratio, 0.62; 95% confidence interval, 0.46-0.84). At 19 years, 15% of runners had died compared with 34% of controls. After adjustment for covariates, runners demonstrated a survival benefit (hazard ratio, 0.61; 95% confidence interval, 0.45-0.82). Disability and survival curves continued to diverge between groups after the 21-year follow-up as participants approached their ninth decade of life.

CONCLUSION:Vigorous exercise (running) at middle and older ages is associated with reduced disability in later life and a notable survival advantage.

The aging brain presents a general decline in plasticity that also affects hippocampal neurogenesis. Besides the well-known reduction in the rate of neuronal generation, development of new neurons is largely delayed in the aging brain. We have recently shown that this slow development is accelerated when middle-aged mice perform voluntary exercise in a running wheel. It is unclear whether the effects of exercise on neurogenic plasticity are persistent in time in a manner that might influence neuronal cohorts generated over an extended time span. To clarify these issues, we examined the effects of exercise length in 3-week-old neurons and found that their development is accelerated only when running occurs for long (3-4 weeks) but not short periods (1 week). Furthermore, chronic running acted with similar efficiency on neurons that were born at the onset, within, or at the end of the exercise period, lasting until 3 months. Interestingly, no effects were observed on neurons born 1 month after exercise had ended. Our results indicate that multiple neuronal cohorts born throughout the exercise span integrate very rapidly in the aging brain, such that the effects of running will accumulate and expand network assembly promoted by neurogenesis. These networks are likely to be more complex than those assembled in a sedentary mouse due to the faster and more efficient integration of new neurons.

We evaluated the perceived impact of physical activity on back pain in runners. Information from 777 runners participating in a half marathon was obtained with a questionnaire about basic data, features of the weekly training and the relationship between running activity and back pain. Half the runners (54.1%) reported a history of back pain. Among them, almost twice as many reported an improvement (49%) than a worsening (27%) of pain with running. No significant associations were found between perceived impact of running on back pain and other factors. In our study favorable effects were much more frequent than unfavorable ones. Further studies are needed to better understand these effects.