The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the potential combined effects of acute exercise and mindfulness mediation on episodic memory.All data collection occurred in the authors' laboratory (January to May of 2019). In this three-arm, within-subject design, participants (N=20; M=21.6 years) completed three counterbalanced laboratory visits, including Exercise Only, Exercise + Meditation and Control. Learning and memory were assessed from a word-list task. A one-factor repeated-measures ANOVA was computed for two memory outcomes, including the learning outcome (average performance across the 6 trials) and the long-term memory recall (10-minute delay).The exercise conditions had a greater learning effect when compared to the Control visit, M= 0.68 (95% CI: 0.10, 1.25), P = 0.02. The Exercise + Memory visit had better longterm memory when compared to Exercise Only, M= 0.95 (95% CI: 0.07, 1.83), P = 0.03.The present experiment provides suggestive evidence that acute exercise may enhance learning and, when coupling acute exercise prior to encoding with meditation during early consolidation, long-term memory may be enhanced.

BACKGROUND:Patients with stress-related exhaustion suffer from cognitive impairments, which often remain after psychological treatment or work place interventions. It is important to find effective treatments that can address this problem. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects on cognitive performance and psychological variables of a 12-week aerobic training program performed at a moderate-vigorous intensity for patients with exhaustion disorder who participated in a multimodal rehabilitation program.

METHODS:In this open-label, parallel, randomized and controlled trial, 88 patients diagnosed with exhaustion disorder participated in a 24-week multimodal rehabilitation program. After 12 weeks in the program the patients were randomized to either a 12-week aerobic training intervention or to a control group with no additional training. Primary outcome measure was cognitive function, and secondary outcome measures were psychological health variables and aerobic capacity.

RESULTS:In total, 51% patients in the aerobic training group and 78% patients in the control group completed the intervention period. The aerobic training group significantly improved in maximal oxygen uptake and episodic memory performance. No additional improvement in burnout, depression or anxiety was observed in the aerobic group compared with controls.

CONCLUSION:Aerobic training at a moderate-vigorous intensity within a multimodal rehabilitation program for patients with exhaustion disorder facilitated episodic memory. A future challenge would be the clinical implementation of aerobic training and methods to increase feasibility in this patient group.

TRIAL REGISTRATION:ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03073772 . Retrospectively registered 21 February 2017.

OBJECTIVE:The neuroprotective effects of both garlic and ascorbic acid (AA) have been documented. In this study the effects of garlic and ascorbic acid on memory deficits and brain tissue oxidative damages induced by lead exposure was investigated.

METHODS:The juvenile rats were divided and treated: (1) Control, (2) Lead (lead acetate in drinking water, 8 weeks), (3) Lead - Ascorbic Acid (Lead-AA), (4)  Lead - Garlic (100 mg/kg, daily, gavage) (Lead-Gar).

RESULTS:In Morris water maze (MWM), the escape latency and traveled path in the Lead group were significantly higher while, the time spent in the target quadrant (Q1) was lower than Control. Both Lead-Gar and Lead-AA groups spent more times in Q1than to lead group. There were no significant differences in swimming speed between the groups. In passive avoidance (PA) test, the time latency for entering the dark compartment by Lead group was lower than Control. Treatment of the animals by AA and garlic significantly increased the time latency. In Lead group, the total thiol concentration in brain tissues was significantly lower while, MDA was higher than Control. Treatment by both garlic and AA increased total thiol concentrations and decreased MDA. Both garlic and AA decreased the lead content of brain tissues.

CONCLUSION:It is suggested that treatment with garlic attenuates the learning and memory impairments due to lead exposure during juvenile rat growth which is comparable to AA. The possible mechanism may be due to its protective effects against brain tissues oxidative damage as well the lowering effects of brain lead content.

The presentation of two pure tones to each ear separately with a slight difference in their frequency results in the perception of a single tone that fluctuates in amplitude at a frequency that equals the difference of interaural frequencies. This perceptual phenomenon is known as binaural auditory beats, and it is thought to entrain electrocortical activity and enhance cognition functions such as attention and memory. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of binaural auditory beats on long-term memory. Participants (n = 32) were kept blind to the goal of the study and performed both the free recall and recognition tasks after being exposed to binaural auditory beats, either in the beta (20 Hz) or theta (5 Hz) frequency bands and white noise as a control condition. Exposure to beta-frequency binaural beatsyielded a greater proportion of correctly recalled words and a higher sensitivity index d' in recognition tasks, while theta-frequency binaural-beat presentation lessened the number of correctly remembered words and the sensitivity index. On the other hand, we could not find differences in the conditional probability for recall given recognition between beta and theta frequencies and white noise, suggesting that the observed changes in recognition were due to the recollection component. These findings indicate that the presentation of binaural auditory beats can affect long-term memory both positively and negatively, depending on the frequency used.

Gamma oscillation plays a role in binding process or sensory integration, a process by which several brain areas beside primary cortex are activated for higher perception of the received stimulus. Beta oscillation is also involved in interpreting received stimulus and occurs following gamma oscillation, and this process is known as gamma-to-beta transition, a process for neglecting unnecessary stimuli in surrounding environment. Gamma oscillation also associates with cognitive functions, memory and emotion. Therefore, modulation of the brain activity can lead to manipulation of cognitive functions. The stimulus used in this study was 40-Hz binaural beat because binaural beat induces frequency following response. This study aimed to investigate the neural oscillation responding to the 40-Hz binaural beat and to evaluate working memory function and emotional states after listening to that stimulus. Two experiments were developed based on the study aims. In the first experiment, electroencephalograms were recorded while participants listened to the stimulus for 30min. The results suggested that frontal, temporal, and central regions were activated within 15min. In the second experiment, word list recall task was conducted before and after listening to the stimulus for 20min. The results showed that, after listening, the recalled words were increase in the working memory portion of the list. Brunel Mood Scale, a questionnaire to evaluate emotional states, revealed changes in emotional states after listening to the stimulus. The emotional results suggested that these changes were consistent with the induced neural oscillations.

Two experiments examined whether chewing spearmint gum can affect the initial learning or subsequent recall of a word list. Comparing those participants in Experiment 1 who chewed gum at the learning or the recall phases showed that chewing gum at initial learning was associated with superior recall. In addition, chewing gum led to context-dependent effects as a switch between gum and no gum (or no gum and gum) between learning and recall led to poorer performance. Experiment 2 provided evidence that sucking gum was sufficient to induce some of the same effects as chewing.

The central cholinergic pathways play a prominent role in the learning and memory processes. Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that inactivates acetylcholine. The present study was undertaken to estimate the acetylcholinesterase- inhibiting activity of extracts of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Myristica fragrans seeds, and ascorbic acid and compare these values with a standard acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting drug, metrifonate. Aqueous extract of G. glabra (150 mg/kg p.o. for 7 successive days), n-hexane extract of M. fragrans seeds (5 mg/kg p.o. for 3 successive days), ascorbic acid (60 mg/kg i.p. for 3 successive days), and metrifonate (50 mg/kg i.p.) were administered to young male Swiss albino mice. Acetylcholinesterase enzyme was estimated in brains of mice. G. glabra, M. fragrans, ascorbic acid, and metrifonate significantly decreased acetylcholinesterase activity as compared with their respective vehicle-treated control groups. 

OBJECTIVE: To observe the effect of electroacupuncture (EA) combined with Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE 50) on learning-memory ability and hippocampal cytokine contents in aging rats for exploring its underlying mechanism in the treatment of dysmnesy. METHODS: Forty-five SD rats were randomly divided into control (n=9), model (n=8), EA (n=10), GBE 50 (n=9) and EA + GBE 50 (n=9) groups. The dysmnesy model was established by D-galactose intraperitoneal injection for 42 days. EA (3 Hz, 1 mA) was applied to "Baihui" (GV 20) and "Zusanli" (ST 36) for 20 min, once every other day for 21 days. The learning-memory ability was detected by Morris water maze tests. The levels of IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha in hippocampus were examined by radioimmunoassay. RESULTS: Compared with control group, the mean escape latency (MEL) of the rats in model group was significantly greater on the 2nd and 3rd day training (P<0.05, P<0.01), and the percent of swimming distance (PSD) in the target quadrant was shortened significantly (P<0.01). Compared with model group, the MEL values of the rats in EA, GBE 50 and EA + GBE 50 groups were significantly shortened (P<0.05, P<0.01), and the PSD values of the later 3 groups increased considerably (P<0.01). Comparison among the EA, GBE 50 and EA + GBE 50 groups showed that the MEL of EA + GBE 50 was obviously shorter than those of EA and GBE 50 groups (P<0.05). Compared with control group, the contents of IL-1beta) and TNF-alpha in hippocampus in model group increased significantly, but IL-6 decreased markedly (P<0.05, P<0.01). In comparison with model group, the IL-1beta contents of EA, GBE 50 and EA + GBE 50 groups, and TNF-alpha of EA and EA + GBE 50 groups were reduced significantly (P<0.05, P<0.01); and the contents of IL-6 in GBE 50 and EA + GBE 50 groups increased apparently (P<0.01). No significant differences were found between model and EA groups in IL-6 levels, and between model and EA + GBE 50 groups in hippocampal TNF-a levels (P>0.05). CONCLUSION: Both EA and GBE 50 can improve the dysmnesy rats' learning-memory ability, which may be closely associated with their effects in regulating hippocampal IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha levels to relieve the inflammatory reaction. Combined administration of EA and GBE 50 has a synergic effect.

AIMS:The present study focuses on analyzing the effects of Sudarshan Kriya yoga (SKY) on brain signals during a working memory (WM) task. To envision the significant effects of SKY on WM capacity (WMC), we chose a control group for contriving a cogent comparison that could be corroborated using statistical tests.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS:A total of 25 subjects were taken in the study, of which 10 were allotted to a control group and 15 to an experimental group. Electroencephalograph was taken during a WM task, which was an automated operation span test before and after SKY with 90 days intervals. No SKY was given to the control group.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED:t-test and one-way ANOVA were applied.

RESULTS:SKY promoted the efficient use of energy and power spectral density (PSD) for different brain rhythms in the desired locations as depicted by the gamma (F8 channel), alpha, and theta 2 (F7 and FC5) bands. It was found that gamma PSD reduced for both phases of memory in the experimental group. Alpha energy increased during the retrieval phase in the experimental group after SKY. Theta 1 rhythm was not affected by SKY, but theta 2 had shown left hemispheric activation. Theta rhythm was associated with memory consolidation.

CONCLUSIONS:SKY had shown minimized energy losses while performing the task. SKY can improve WMC by changing the brain rhythms such that energy is utilized efficiently in performing the task.

AIMS:The present study focuses on analyzing the effects of Sudarshan Kriya yoga (SKY) on brain signals during a working memory (WM) task. To envision the significant effects of SKY on WM capacity (WMC), we chose a control group for contriving a cogent comparison that could be corroborated using statistical tests.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS:A total of 25 subjects were taken in the study, of which 10 were allotted to a control group and 15 to an experimental group. Electroencephalograph was taken during a WM task, which was an automated operation span test before and after SKY with 90 days intervals. No SKY was given to the control group.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED:t-test and one-way ANOVA were applied.

RESULTS:SKY promoted the efficient use of energy and power spectral density (PSD) for different brain rhythms in the desired locations as depicted by the gamma (F8 channel), alpha, and theta 2 (F7 and FC5) bands. It was found that gamma PSD reduced for both phases of memory in the experimental group. Alpha energy increased during the retrieval phase in the experimental group after SKY. Theta 1 rhythm was not affected by SKY, but theta 2 had shown left hemispheric activation. Theta rhythm was associated with memory consolidation.

CONCLUSIONS:SKY had shown minimized energy losses while performing the task. SKY can improve WMC by changing the brain rhythms such that energy is utilized efficiently in performing the task.

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: A yoga practice involving cycles of yoga postures and supine rest (called cyclic meditation) was previously shown to improve performance in attention tasks more than relaxation in the corpse posture (shavasana). This was ascribed to reduced anxiety, though this was not assessed. METHODS: In fifty-seven male volunteers (group average age +/- S.D., 26.6 +/- 4.5 years) the immediate effect of two yoga relaxation techniques was studied on memory and state anxiety. All participants were assessed before and after (i) Cyclic meditation (CM) practiced for 22:30 minutes on one day and (ii) an equal duration of Supine rest (SR) or the corpse posture (shavasana), on another day. Sections of the Wechsler memory scale (WMS) were used to assess; (i) attention and concentration (digit span forward and backward), and (ii) associate learning. State anxiety was assessed using Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). RESULTS: There was a significant improvement in the scores of all sections of the WMS studied after both CM and SR, but, the magnitude of change was more after CM compared to after SR. The state anxiety scores decreased after both CM and SR, with a greater magnitude of decrease after CM. There was no correlation between percentage change in memory scores and state anxiety for either session. CONCLUSION: A cyclical combination of yoga postures and supine rest in CM improved memory scores immediately after the practice and decreased state anxiety more than rest in a classical yoga relaxation posture (shavasana).

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: A yoga practice involving cycles of yoga postures and supine rest (called cyclic meditation) was previously shown to improve performance in attention tasks more than relaxation in the corpse posture (shavasana). This was ascribed to reduced anxiety, though this was not assessed. METHODS: In fifty-seven male volunteers (group average age +/- S.D., 26.6 +/- 4.5 years) the immediate effect of two yoga relaxation techniques was studied on memory and state anxiety. All participants were assessed before and after (i) Cyclic meditation (CM) practiced for 22:30 minutes on one day and (ii) an equal duration of Supine rest (SR) or the corpse posture (shavasana), on another day. Sections of the Wechsler memory scale (WMS) were used to assess; (i) attention and concentration (digit span forward and backward), and (ii) associate learning. State anxiety was assessed using Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). RESULTS: There was a significant improvement in the scores of all sections of the WMS studied after both CM and SR, but, the magnitude of change was more after CM compared to after SR. The state anxiety scores decreased after both CM and SR, with a greater magnitude of decrease after CM. There was no correlation between percentage change in memory scores and state anxiety for either session. CONCLUSION: A cyclical combination of yoga postures and supine rest in CM improved memory scores immediately after the practice and decreased state anxiety more than rest in a classical yoga relaxation posture (shavasana).

OBJECTIVES:Functional electrical stimulation (FES) may induce involuntary exercise and make beneficial effects on vascular dementia (VD) by strengthening the BDNF-pCREB-mediated pathway and hippocampal plasticity. Whether FES improves recognition memory and synaptic plasticity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) was investigated by establishing a VD model.

METHODS:The VD rats were administered with two weeks of voluntary exercise, forced exercise, or involuntary exercise induced with FES. Sham-operated and control groups were also included. The behavioral changes were assessed with the novel object recognition test and novel object location test. The expression levels of key proteins related to synaptic plasticity in the PFC were also detected.

RESULTS:All types of exercise improved the rats' novel object recognition index, but only voluntary exercise and involuntary exercise induced with FES improved the novel object location index. Any sort of exercise enhanced the expression of key proteins in the PFC.

CONCLUSION:Involuntary exercise induced with FES can improve recognition memory in VD better than forced exercise. The mechanism is associated with increased synaptic plasticity in the PFC. FES may be a useful alternative tool for cognitive rehabilitation.

Exercise is a potent enhancer of learning and memory, yet we know little of the underlying mechanisms that likely include alterations in synaptic efficacy in the hippocampus. To address this issue, we exposed mice to a single episode of voluntary exercise, and permanently marked activated mature hippocampal dentate granule cells using conditional Fos-TRAP mice. Exercise-activated neurons (Fos-TRAPed) showed an input-selective increase in dendritic spines and excitatory postsynaptic currents at 3 days post-exercise, indicative of exercise-induced structural plasticity. Laser-capture microdissection and RNASeq of activated neurons revealed that the most highly induced transcript was, a little-studied I-BAR domain-containing gene, which we hypothesized could be involved in membrane curvature and dendritic spine formation. shRNA-mediatedknockdown in vivo prevented the exercise-induced increases in spines and excitatory postsynaptic currents. Our results link short-term effects of exercise to activity-dependent expression of Mtss1L, which we propose as a novel effector of activity-dependent rearrangement of synapses.

CONTEXT:Attention is one of the components to enhance academic excellence. Traditional techniques were included in Indian schools to develop mental faculties with a view to add value to the latter.

AIM:The aim was to evaluate the effects of Gayatri mantra (GM) chanting on attention as measured by digit-letter substitution task (DLST).

SETTINGS AND DESIGN:School setting and self as control study design.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:Subjects consisted of 60 school students included (boys = 30 and girls = 30) in the age range of 12-14 years, who were trained for chanting GM for 5 days. They were assessed on DLST immediately before and after two sessions (i) GM chanting (10 min) and (ii) Poem line (PL) chanting with an equal duration (10 min). Fifty percent of participants performed GM chanting and remaining on the PL recitation on day 6. The orders of the sessions were reversed on day 7.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED:Repeated measure analysis of variance with Bonferroni adjustment used.

RESULTS:Both sessions showed significant improvement in the total and net score of DLST. The magnitude of net score improvement was greater after GM (21.67%) compared to PL (4.85%). Female group had found better performance following GM compared to PL chanting.

CONCLUSIONS:Both GM and PL led to improvement in performance, as assessed by DLST. But the influence of GM had significantly higher than PL in net score of female group.

 Accumulation of oxidative damage to mitochondria, protein, and nucleic acid in the brain may lead to neuronal and cognitive dysfunction. The effects on cognitive function, brain mitochondrial structure, and biomarkers of oxidative damage were studied after feeding old rats two mitochondrial metabolites, acetyl-l-carnitine (ALCAR) [0.5% or 0.2% (wt/vol) in drinking water], and/or R-alpha-lipoic acid (LA) [0.2% or 0.1% (wt/wt) in diet]. Spatial memory was assessed by using the Morris water maze; temporal memory was tested by using the peak procedure (a time-discrimination procedure). Dietary supplementation with ALCAR and/or LA improved memory, the combination being the most effective for two different tests of spatial memory (P < 0.05; P < 0.01) and for temporal memory (P < 0.05). Immunohistochemical analysis showed that oxidative damage to nucleic acids (8-hydroxyguanosine and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine) increased with age in the hippocampus, a region important for memory. Oxidative damage to nucleic acids occurred predominantly in RNA. Dietary administration of ALCAR and/or LA significantly reduced the extent of oxidized RNA, the combination being the most effective. Electron microscopic studies in the hippocampus showed that ALCAR and/or LA reversed age-associated mitochondrial structural decay. These results suggest that feeding ALCAR and LA to old rats improves performance on memory tasks by lowering oxidative damage and improving mitochondrial function.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS:Type 2 diabetes is likely to be an independent risk factor for hippocampal-based memory dysfunction, although this complication has yet to be investigated in detail. As dysregulated glycometabolism in peripheral tissues is a key symptom of type 2 diabetes, it is hypothesised that diabetes-mediated memory dysfunction is also caused by hippocampal glycometabolic dysfunction. If so, such dysfunction should also be ameliorated with moderate exercise by normalising hippocampal glycometabolism, since 4 weeks of moderate exercise enhances memory function and local hippocampal glycogen levels in normal animals.

METHODS:The hippocampal glycometabolism in OLETF rats (model of human type 2 diabetes) was assessed and, subsequently, the effects of exercise on memory function and hippocampal glycometabolism were investigated.

RESULTS:OLETF rats, which have memory dysfunction, exhibited higher levels of glycogen in the hippocampus than did control rats, and breakdown of hippocampal glycogen with a single bout of exercise remained unimpaired. However, OLETF rats expressed lower levels of hippocampal monocarboxylate transporter 2 (MCT2, a transporter for lactate to neurons). Four weeks of moderate exercise improved spatial memory accompanied by further increase in hippocampal glycogen levels and restoration of MCT2 expression independent of neurotrophic factor and clinical symptoms in OLETF rats.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION:Our findings are the first to describe detailed profiles of glycometabolism in the type 2 diabetic hippocampus and to show that 4 weeks of moderate exercise improves memory dysfunction in type 2 diabetes via amelioration of dysregulated hippocampal glycometabolism. Dysregulated hippocampal lactate-transport-related glycometabolism is a possible aetiology of type-2-diabetes-mediated memory dysfunction.

The motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD) are preceded by non-motorized symptoms including memory deficits. Treatment with dopamine replacement medications, such as L-DOPA only control motor symptoms and does not meet the clinical challenges of the disease, such as dyskinesia, non-motor symptoms, and neuroprotection. The purpose of the current study was to examine the neuroprotective potential of crocin and physical exercise in an animal model of PD. Male Wistar rats ran on a horizontal treadmill and/or pretreated with crocin at a dose of 100 mg/kg. Then, 16 μg of the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was microinjected into left medial forebrain bundle. Crocin treatment and/or exercise continued for 6 more weeks. Spatial and aversive memories, rotational behaviour, inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters were assessed at theend of week 6 post surgery. The results showed that pretreatment with crocin alone and in combination with exercise decreased the total number of rotaions as compared with 6-OHDA-lesioned group. Furthermore, treatment of parkinsonian rats with crocin along with exercise training improved aversive and spatial memories. Biochemical analysis showed that crocin and exercise (alone and in combination) reduced tumor necrosis factor- (TNF) α levels in the striatum. Moreover, treatment with crocin at a dose of 100 mg/kg decreased the lipid peroxidation levels in the hippocampus, while exercise training increased the total thiol concentration. In conclusion, our findings indicated that pretreatment with crocin along with treadmill exercise ameliorated motor and memory deficits induced by 6-OHDA, which is considered to be due to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. The results suggest that combined therapy with crocin and exercise may be protective for motor and memory deficits in PD patients.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive condition affecting the central nervous system (CNS), and is characterized by the development of demyelinated lesions and plaques in the brain and spinal cord. Exercise is beneficial against dementia in elderly patients, so we investigated the effects of exercise on memory in relation to hippocampal demyelination and neuroplasticity in a mouse model of MS (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis [EAE]). Mice were randomly divided into three groups: Sham, EAE, and EAE and exercise (EAE+EX). EAE+EX mice exercised five times a week for 4weeks, and all mice performed step-down avoidance tasks in order to verify memory ability. We analyzed changes in myelin basic protein (MBP), 2',3'-Cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNPase), 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (brdU), doublecortin (DCX), bcl-2, bax, TUNEL, caspase-3, and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) via immunoassay or histological staining. We found decreased memory ability in EAE mice, accompanied by impaired myelination, increased apoptosis and cell proliferation, and decreased BDNF in the hippocampus. The memory decline and changes in demyelination, apoptosis, BDNF, and cell proliferation were partially reversed in EAE+EX mice. Our findings suggest that in patients with MS, regular exercise may benefit cognitive function by rescuing some hippocampal cellular and molecular impairments.